and so in conclusion.

speech acts. speech events. spoken discourse. written discourse. From having no clue to what these terms meant, to understanding not only what they are and their components, but also factors that affect them, such as how they vary cross-culturally...I can say that I have come thus far. In a perceived subjective duration of merely a few weeks (time passes when you're having fun), I have learnt much more than I had initially expected from this module. I had wanted to wait till the first rounds of presentations were over before writing this last entry, because I knew that my classmates would feel the same way, or at least, their presentations would objectively demonstrate this fact- and I was not wrong.

It was evident that not only did we acquire new information over the course of this semester, whether about types of compliment strategies, gender differences in computer-mediated communication, or components of speech events, but more importantly, it is apparent that we see the relevance of what we have learnt, and are able to apply all that was taught to our daily lives. That, to me, is what is the essence of a good module. Afterall, true knowledge is what remains after school ends, right? And that is also one of the plus points of this course, and one of the reasons I have enjoyed it: that it is personally relevant, and easy to relate to real-life situations. We all communicate in social interactions, whether it is ordering food, or making a presentation, or receiving, or giving, compliments. Gender and age and culture differences in writing and speech patterns are also salient and easily observable, such as females tending to be more emotional, males using more profanities, chinese writing style being circular while english ones are relatively linear and so on.

I guess when it comes down to it, knowing that the module ends here is bittersweet. Whilst I'm glad that I have gained much, learning about new things, especially in an engaging and lively manner with brilliant classmates, I somehow find myself wanting to learn more (maybe more lectures! just joking.) What knowledge I have acquired only serves to stimulates my thinking further, while shedding new light on the remaining vastness of unexplored terrain. The more you know, the more you know you do not know. Haha. And it's sad that there will not be anymore lectures to answer these questions. But now the responsiblity and onus falls on us to find out more on our own. Taking the module has been an extremely interesting and enriching experience and I'm glad I made the decision to take it. What's left now is to see this not as an end, but equipped with what I have learnt, this is merely the beginning of a journey of exploration.

week 10- computer-mediated communication

Computer-mediated communication by the sound of it obviously refers to human-human communication via new mediums on the computer, such as instant messaging, email, web logs, twitter, skype, forums, tumblr, social-networking sites like facebook etc. These channels of communication moderate regular interaction patterns: speech or written forms. In a way, these open up new areas of research because speech acts and speech events such as compliment responses or written discourses, established aspects of linguistics studies, can be analysed in novel contexts. Further impact these have include changing language, and the way we use language, such as introducing new words like google and wiki into our vocabularies, as well as emoticons, abbreviations and the like. To think these things never existed before CMC is mind-boggling, while at the same time, the evolution of language in response to cultural processes is expected. Haha. It's really amazing that here I am typing a blog entry when blogs were unheard of a decade ago. Seems like the impact on our lifestyle is also evident. Most people I know either cannot live without the internet, or their handphones =P (look an emoticon!) Lol (acronym!)

One point that was brought up in class was that penetration rate for the use of hand phones, as well as the internet is extremely high in Singapore. Then, what impact does this have on our language use? With the frequent texting and instant messaging, the use of contracted forms becomes second-nature. Does this seep into our use of English? To me, this seems to parallel the argument regarding learning a second language. Does learning a second language impact one's command of his or her first language? Oh yes, and Singlish! Does Singlish affect the way you use English? Dr Deng said research indicates there is no evidence that CMC has any negative impact on language use but I guess as always, it depends on the individual. Foundation of the first language and how much exposure to CMC one is talking about. Most people I know adjust their use of netspeak and English based on the circumstances, just like how they switch from Singlish to formal English depending on the situation, or from English to their second language. It's all intuitive. But then again, my sample is biased, because my friends are all somewhat educated, possibly of a certain SES strata.

In any case, CMC certainly is an area worth exploring, whether it is gender differences, or looking at the different types of CMC. It's really interesting(to me at least). Such research poses new challenges because of the different variables involved, like whether communication is synchronous or asynchronous, one to one or one to many, so in essence, each type of CMC is different from the others. And while you can refer to research done on other kinds of CMC, findings may not be applicable to that particular type of CMC you are studying. An interesting period for linguistics studies and research. We'll just have to wait and see.

week 9- cross-gender interaction

Today's lecture was on how language is sexist, that is, it reproduces gender inequalities in society, and how men and women communicate differently. On the first point, issues that were brought up included that of symmetry and asymmetry. For example, generic terms for words are often masculine (Man= all humankind). The use of titles are also asymmetrical, because all males just use the single title of Mr. while women choose between Ms, Miss, Mdm, Mrs which reveals information about herself such as her martial status. I guess most people didn't know the actual meaning of Ms, that it was meant to be a parallel version of Mr, until this lesson. Haha. In the case of marked and unmarked terms, generic unmarked terms often are used for males, and have to be specially 'marked' when used to refer to a female (waiter vs waitress).

This topic also reminded me of something I learnt before, that naming also reflects and propagates gender inequalities. In the past, in Chinese societies, girls were often named to express desire for a son, instead of being recognised as individuals. Even for English names, there is some asymmetry; female names are usually derived from male names, and not vice-versa. Josephine, Justine, Stephanie...I bet you can come up with more.

I think language is a good example of how societal attitudes are reflected in cultural practices. But what's worth noting is that this is a fluid and dynamic process. Cultural practices becomes concretised and embedded in the norms of everyday life only when they are repeated. Consequently, revealing the gender inequalities within language allows us to challenge the status quo by changing what we say. When everyone does so, language changes, along with its implicit ability to situate females in disadvantageous power structures.

PS:
Just wanted to add a little on the second point, that men and women communicate differently. No wonder men's and women's magazines are filled with articles on "what she really means when she says" and "how to communciate more effectively with your man".. The point I really agreed with was how women tend to communicate on a meta-message level, with implied meanings deeper than the literal, beyond what is said. Haha! But of course, individual variations. And sometimes, anything really means anything. =)

week 8- politeness, face and power

This week's lecture summarised the ways in which we show politeness, linguistically. Such politeness often is interlinked with various other complex factors, such as formality of the occasion, the relationship between the relevant parties (maybe such as power distance) and not forgetting, culture. Polite may mean slurping noodles loudly, like in Japan, while it may be impolite to ask for tomato sauce/ketchup in a fine dining establishment (it's insulting to the chef. you're supposed to enjoy the fine subtle flavours of your aperitif). Anyway, the point is that even politeness is culturally-specific. Don't go round flashing the thumbs up or OK gestures everywhere you go. Another thing to note is that there is a right time to be polite. Don't be formal to your army buddies or you'll be outcast. And definitely do not be formal in life-and-death situations like in the above comic or someone may die.

Regarding the maxims of politeness, they may seem foreign, but only because of the terms used, like "Approbation". What they mean, is actually already second-nature to us; we practise it everyday, without even being conscious that we are trying to be polite. The Approbation maxim basically tells you to praise others, don't criticise them. We all know that. Even when writing letters, we praise the other party first, before making any request.

I was just thinking about the agreement maxim, and whether it holds true in all situations. Do you really want people to agree with you all the time? Personally I would rather people agree partially, and also have their own opinions. It would be really obvious if people 'parrot' you all the time to make you like them, and it may even backfire if they start to think you're weird, or boring. Also, I guess you could twist the maxims sometimes, like when you tease a friend, or go into a mock argument with them, it may go towards building the relationship instead. So... it just confirms the fact that politeness is relative; our genius brains automatically take into account who, when, where and calculate the best possible trajectory of action, ultimately, to make the other person feel good, and like you.

week 7- cultural systems

The topic for this week's lecture was the most relevant to me in terms of what we first think of when someone says cross-cultural communication. When people mention culture, they are likely to bring to mind representations of culture, which include food, language, clothes, well-known personalities, transport and so on. SG culture: Singlish, Lee Kuan Yew, HDB flats, chicken rice and laksa, Kiasuism... and the list goes on. In doing business especially, in this age of globalisation, there is much emphasis on understanding your business partner's culture and his way of doing business. To me, here are some ways what cross-cultural communication is really about:

1.
Understanding how another's culture is significant to him/her

2.
Making others feel at home, even if they are in a foreign land

3.
Not judging, but accepting other people and their culture. If not possible, at least tolerate.

On another note, we've all heard hilarious examples of cross-cultural 'miscommunications' leading to devastating outcomes. One example of a cross-cultural blunder I've heard about was how a Chinese company tried to market its vacuum cleaners in USA by using the slogan "We Suck". Needless to say, they failed miserably. I found two other websites which have similar examples of such comical anecdotes. Worth a read and I hope you enjoy them! :)

http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/12-17-2005-84236.asp
http://www.culturosity.com/articles/culturalblunders.htm

week 6- written discourse

Today's class was about how different cultural groups write differently, specifically in terms of sentence, paragraph and essay construction. While English writers tend to write in a straight-forward, linear and argumentative manner, putting forward a point as clearly as possible, oriental writers, such as the Chinese and Japanese use a circular writing style, so they start a topic by detailing the periphery, before gradually increasing the relevance and reaching the conclusion at the end. In most cases, the conclusion is not even an explicit one, and the responsibility is on the reader to understand the layers of meaning of a text.

Honestly speaking, I love the Chinese style of writing, and while it may not be the best choice of writing style in say, a business letter, especially in Singapore, where the emphasis on efficiency is so high we don't even bother with proper phone openings, I find it superior in creating a particular atmosphere that is necessary to convey the message. To me, one of the most important aspects of successful writing is that the reader feels a sense of connection to the author, and can experience what the author feels as he is constructing his text. Consequently, it makes a difference as to whether certain things are spelt outright or implied. Just like how Asian ghost stories are often scarier because of what is left unspoken, and what is not shown.

As an afterthought, I was reminded of the Japanese art form of Haiku writing, because it seems to fully represent the circular style of oriental writing. After searching on the internet for a bit, I found this rather interesting website about Haikus, the Japanese poem form with the 5-7-5 syllabic structure. I would like to quote a few poignant points from the site which seem especially relevant and might be generalised to all other oriental writings:

"The pain is to give readers the means to feel as the poet her/himself felt at the time, or maybe differently, without any explicit (and so directive) statements about actual feelings." [WOW this is almost exactly like what I had thought and mentioned earlier. Haha.]

"Haiku poets have an aversion to glaringly inventive metaphors, which they regard as intrusive, obliging the reader to accept the writer's personal view. They offend against the 'directness' which the writer wishes to achieve, "like jewels on a finger pointing at the moon". For the same reason, adjectives are sparse in haiku. A good rule might be to avoid descriptions that readers may easily imagine for themselves."

"The best haiku do not just recreate the 'moment' pictorially or in a narrative way. They hint at something beyond, they present a movement. This may be an unexpected twist, or it may be a movement in the mind as the images are registered. Haiku are 'open-ended' or 'half-said things', so there will be later realisations. "Haiku shows us what we knew all the time, but did not know we knew" (RH Blyth)."

Despite the lack of words, Haikus seem to convey a meaning beyond what is spoken, and like all poems, resonate within the reader much longer than a linear point is wont to do. Below are a few Haikus I really liked and clearly demonstrate circularity and implicit meaning, hope you enjoy them too!

I kill an ant
and realize my three children
have been watching.
(Kato, Shuson)

From a bathing tub
I throw water into the lake -
slight muddiness appears.
(Kawahigashi, Hekigodo)

First autumn morning:
the mirror I stare into
shows my father's face.

The moment two bubbles
are united, they both vanish.
A lotus blooms.
(both by Murakami, Kijo)

week 4- spoken discourse

Hello/Hi/This is me, just calling to say good morning, and how are you/I'm fine
-weary sigh
I know, morning, how are you/
fingers drumming, mind not with herself, not with him,
she's just awaiting the next line, before she can reply

Sounds like lyrics but anyway, that's my adaptation of a typical phone or conversation opening in the American context, comprising 4 different sequences or adjacency pairs in which a reply from the other party has to be had or the sequence is repeated.

1. Summons/ answer: Hello (actually a response to the ring, not a greeting. I didn't know that)
2. Identification/ recognition: Self or other first
3. Greeting
4. How are you

Chinese phone openings on the other hand, have other elements such as affirmation of reconnecting(haven't heard from you for so long), voice recognition comments, disturbance check(am I interrupting your meal?) and prioritised communicative acts(in the event that a phone call was expected; sorry I overslept and didn't call you this morning).

Personally, I do many of these things, more than the western 'how are you' type of comments, and they come naturally. In some ways, I find the Chinese comments more sincere and personable than the English ones because when I say them, I mean them, while the 'Good morning's and 'How are you's are often said as mere formalities. On the other hand, I guess it depends on the individual, and there are as many sincere English speakers as there are Chinese ones making small talk just to fill awkward silences.

From what was observed in class, Singaporean phone openings are a mix of the two or as my classmates concurred, a different sequence altogether...it seems like there is no sequence and we just go straight to the point! Well, the Chinese and Singaporean styles are most common in my repertoire. Sometimes a phone conversation lasts two sentences: Hey XY, are you going to ____?/ Yup, I'll see you later, bye; definitely a product of our 'time is money' society where productivity and efficiency are emphasized. And yet another example as to how different ways of communication are borne out of various cultures, and distinctively reflect them.

As for phone closings, sometimes there are announcements to end the conversation(I have to go now), summaries of the topics of conversation, and warrants(ok...). Other times, it is silence which proposes an end, and just needs await acceptance.

week 3- speech events

Speech events are more than a sequence of speech acts, encompassing implicit rules and norms that govern how such an exchange might be culturally-specific. Dissecting a speech act in order to analyse it gives you its components: Genre, Topic, Purpose or Function, Setting, Key, Participants, Message Form, Act Sequence, Rules for Interaction, and Norms of Interpretation. So there's not only the things most of us can think of offhand- purpose, setting, parties involved..there are also other things to take note of, like the tone of the situation(funeral or party). Even the setting, like whether its a phone conversation, face-to-face or online, on MSN, would affect the other components, such as how serious a group meeting is, or the topics permissible.

At first, I was surprised(unbelievably, yet again!) at the intricacies and complexity of events that we take for granted everyday. The difference a subjective and objective perspective makes. Things like having a conversation, buying food from a canteen stall or even accepting or rejecting a marriage proposal..these seem like second-nature to most of us(ok, not the latter) but it's really interesting how we learn these implicit, culturally-specific rules. In Psychology, competing theories say language is either innate or learnt, and so far, it seems like the answer is a mix of both.. things like turn-taking, we are born with, which is why we play with our mothers/caregivers in a relay-fashion. Other aspects of language are socially, culturally built. Japanese are born with, but lose the ability to pronounce the 'l' consonant by the time they are 9 months old, because there isn't such a phoneme in the Japanese language. Rule-wise, etiquette such as who is introduced first at a party (typically the less important/senior person to the more senior) is culturally-driven. Especially if patriarchy means the less important person is always the female.

I'm starting to ramble again. But most important thoughts before I end:

-Is everything scripted- a wedding proposal, a rejection, an interview, a restaurant reservation, a transaction? How free are we?

Answer: Foucault says we are not free at all. Levi-Strauss and Althusser say we are not free, but if we can see that, it must mean we are free to a certain extent. Sounds philosophical, but I agree with them. At least we determine the topics of conversation, and are free to 'exit scene' whenever we wish to.

-Are we over analysing, classifying and compartmentalising things?

Answer: My friend asked this about Psychology, how everything, an emotion, a relationship, problem-solving, is quantified and qualified and reduced to statistics and pathways and components, but it seemed to apply to the study of speech too(ref. opening paragraph). I guess, it seems sad to think about it that way. Reductionism is directly at odds with the human nature to think about ourselves as unique and special, about human abilities as indescribable; it is what makes us different from machines or robots that are programmed to do things, like produce speech. That said, breaking things down, taking things apart is how we learn. Simple as that.

week 2- speech acts

So. This week we learnt about speech acts. This was all new and interesting to me as I had never really taken a module about the English language, or linguistics, but what struck me the most was the inherent value of language itself. We use language on a day-to-day basis, often taking it for granted. I had previously learnt, during literature classes, that language can convey power; how the persona speaks may convey his authority. But only during the lecture did it hit me..Yes, language actually DOES things. Which is quite scary. When I took the MRT train home, the 'reserved seat' sign popped out at me and got me thinking: "that's exactly what I learnt today, that sign actually makes people give up their seats". That, is actually quite amazing, though not as majorly significant in the way a marriage vow changes your life forever, which was an example given in class. Then I linked it to Psychology...indeed the way you say things can determine whether people do what you say. Wouldn't you like to know. Haha.

We also learnt about how studies can be cross-cultural (between people of different cultures speaking their own native languages), interlanguage (between people with varying competencies of the same language. It should really be intralanguage, no?) and sociopragmatic (how different factors in society affect how speech is performed, like class or gender or age). Wow. I would only have been able to think of the first and last research areas. The three different aspects of possible research provided me with food for thought... For interlanguage variation, maybe comparing a native speaker with a new learner would yield variations in types of words used, like how people trying to learn a new language often learn in stages, such as pronounciation and alphabets, then nouns and verbs. Usually grammar comes in at a later stage, because you only need it when you string the nouns and verbs into sentences. Ah. Which also explains why some of my friends learning English have brilliant vocabulary but have more problems with sentence construction.

Sociocultural variation is so..sociological. Haha. It's probably a vicious cycle, like how sociocultural factors determine language used, and as we all know, language is about doing power. Thus..the language people use reflects the power they have, whether it is in terms of their education level, SES, class, and also determines the power they have, such as their access to resources, and their life chances. For example, someone born in an illiterate family grows up lacking language competency, affecting his access to job opportunities and it all feeds back into the system so he remains poor! How discouraging. Nah, of course individual motivation plays a big part too...

And then, we talked about how Chinese and American people generally give, and respond to compliments differently, and how this reflects the cultural values of a society. The former usually rejects compliments, while the latter accepts or deflects them. I recalled an incident when I had been chatting online with a friend in China. I complimented him for being smart, and he rejected it, saying that he was stupid. Correspondingly, I replied by saying no, he wasn't. His reply then was:" I know, I'm just being polite". I has thought this slightly strange at that time, but now I see that it's due to cultural differences! Indeed, modesty seems to be valued in Chinese societies. Even in Singapore... although our class exercise showed a somewhat expected migration towards Western patterns of compliment acceptance. During Chinese New Year for example, people always say that I'm smart, being able to enter university, and I find myself answering:" No lah..". Maybe like what someone suggested, we respond differently to compliments about our performance, and our possessions, and are more likely to accept the latter.

Wow. This entry is longer than I expected. Haha. Well, overall, from the first two lectures, I've already felt like I learnt something about different cultures. It seems to offer additional insight on Cultural Studies, my minor, which was partly my intention in taking this module, apart from the fact that it sounded interesting. So.. here's to a good start!